TLD Registries Explained: Who Controls Domain Extensions (2025)

Quick Answer

Table of Contents

Understanding the Domain Hierarchy

Before exploring registries, it's essential to understand where TLDs fit in the domain name system:

Domain Name Structure

www.example.com
 |      |     |
 |      |     └── TLD (Top-Level Domain) - managed by registry
 |      └── Second-Level Domain - registered by you
 └── Subdomain - configured by you

Types of Top-Level Domains

Generic TLDs (gTLDs):

• Legacy gTLDs: .com, .net, .org, .info, .biz (established pre-2012)
• New gTLDs: .tech, .online, .store, .app, .dev (ICANN 2012 expansion)
• Sponsored TLDs: .edu, .gov, .mil (restricted to specific communities)

Country Code TLDs (ccTLDs):

• Geographic: .uk, .de, .fr, .jp, .au (tied to countries)
• Repurposed: .io (British Indian Ocean Territory), .ai (Anguilla), .tv (Tuvalu)

Infrastructure TLD:

• .arpa: Used for reverse DNS and other technical purposes

The Root Zone

At the very top of the DNS hierarchy sits the root zone, maintained by IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, operated by ICANN). The root zone contains the authoritative list of all TLDs and which servers are responsible for each.

As of late 2024, the third quarter closed with 378.5 million domain name registrations across all TLDs globally - an increase of 16.2 million (4.5%) year over year.

Registry vs Registrar: The Key Difference

This distinction confuses many people, but it's fundamental to understanding the domain industry:

What is a Registry?

A registry is the wholesale operator of a TLD. They:

• Maintain the authoritative database of all domains under their TLD
• Operate the DNS servers that respond to queries for their TLD
• Set pricing (wholesale) and policies for their TLD
• Process registration, renewal, and transfer requests from registrars
• Contract with ICANN (for gTLDs) or operate under government authority (for ccTLDs)

Key point: You cannot buy a domain directly from most registries. They only deal with accredited registrars.

What is a Registrar?

A registrar is a retail business that:

• Sells domain registrations to end users (you)
• Is accredited by ICANN and/or individual ccTLD registries
• Maintains customer accounts and billing
• Provides user interfaces (websites, APIs) for domain management
• May offer additional services (hosting, email, SSL certificates)

Real-World Example

When you register mybusiness.com through GoDaddy:

1. You pay GoDaddy (the registrar) ~$12-18/year retail
2. GoDaddy pays Verisign (the registry) ~$10.26/year wholesale
3. Verisign adds your domain to the .com zone file
4. DNS servers worldwide can now resolve your domain

How the Registry-Registrar Model Works

ICANN mandates this separation for generic TLDs to promote competition and prevent monopolistic practices.

The Registration Flow

[End User] → [Registrar] → [Registry] → [Root Zone]
     │            │             │            │
     │ ① Request  │             │            │
     │ domain     │             │            │
     │ mybiz.com  │             │            │
     │            │ ② EPP       │            │
     │            │ Create      │            │
     │            │ Command     │            │
     │            │             │ ③ Update   │
     │            │             │ Zone File  │
     │            │             │            │
     │            │ ④ Success   │            │
     │ ⑤ Domain   │ Response    │            │
     │ Registered │             │            │

EPP: The Communication Protocol

Registrars communicate with registries using the Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP), an XML-based protocol standardized in RFC 5730-5734.

EPP commands include:

• Create: Register a new domain
• Delete: Remove a domain
• Renew: Extend registration period
• Transfer: Move domain between registrars
• Update: Modify domain data (contacts, nameservers)
• Check: Query domain availability
• Info: Retrieve domain details

Thick vs Thin Registries

Thick Registry (most TLDs):

• Registry stores complete registrant contact information
• RDAP/WHOIS queries return full details
• Examples: .net, .org, all new gTLDs

Thin Registry (.com only until recently):

• Registry only stores nameservers and registrar info
• Registrar stores contact information
• .com transitioned to thick registry in 2019

Major gTLD Registry Operators

Verisign

The dominant force in the domain industry.

TLDs operated:

• .com (156.7 million domains as of Q3 2024)
• .net (12.9 million domains)
• .name
• .cc
• .tv (technical operations)

Key facts:

• Combined .com and .net: approximately 170 million domains
• Processes over 450 billion DNS transactions daily
• Maintains 27+ years of uninterrupted availability
• Headquartered in Reston, Virginia

ICANN Contract Status (2024):

• On November 27, 2024, ICANN renewed the .COM Registry Agreement with Verisign through November 30, 2030
• New agreement became effective December 1, 2024
• The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) also renewed its Cooperative Agreement with Verisign on November 29, 2024

Pricing: Verisign sets wholesale prices that registrars pay. The current .com wholesale fee is approximately $10.26 per domain per year, though periodic increases are permitted under ICANN agreements.

Identity Digital (formerly Donuts/Afilias)

The largest portfolio of new gTLDs.

Scale:

• Over 270 gTLDs as registry operator
• Registry service provider for 180+ additional TLDs, ccTLDs, and brand TLDs
• Supports over 28 million domains on their platform
• Works with over 1,800 ICANN-accredited registrars

Notable TLDs:

• Legacy: .info, .pro
• Popular new gTLDs: .world, .studio, .guru, .photography, .email
• Technical: .io (the popular tech startup extension)
• Professional: .accountants, .attorney, .dentist, .doctor, .lawyer

2024-2025 Developments:

• Became technical operator of .ai, experiencing 60%+ year-over-year growth
• Fifth consecutive year on Inc. 5000 list of fastest-growing private companies
• Secured partnerships with LinkedIn Premium, Gravatar, OneFootball, Lnk.Bio, and Bitly
• Implemented price adjustments for their TLD portfolio on October 4, 2024

Ownership: Identity Digital is owned by private equity firm Ethos Capital, which acquired Donuts in January 2021.

Radix

Fast-growing registry focused on premium new gTLDs.

TLDs operated (10 extensions):

• .online
• .store
• .tech
• .website
• .space
• .press
• .site
• .host
• .fun
• .uno

Key statistics:

• Over 10 million domains under management
• H1 2025: 50% year-on-year increase in premium domain registrations
• .tech generated $1.58 million in total revenue in H1 2024
• .fun saw 331% surge in registrations in H2 2024 compared to H2 2023

2025 Infrastructure Change: In November 2025, Radix will migrate its entire portfolio from Team Internet (formerly CentralNic) to Tucows Registry as its back-end registry services provider. This involves approximately 10 million domains across 11 TLDs.

Public Interest Registry (PIR)

Non-profit steward of .org.

TLDs operated:

• .org (over 11 million domains as of November 2024)
• .ngo
• .ong
• .charity
• .foundation
• .gives
• .giving
• Internationalized versions: .संगठन (Devanagari), .ОРГ (Russian Cyrillic), .机构 (simplified Chinese)

Key facts:

• Non-profit organization created by the Internet Society in 2002
• Based in Reston, Virginia
• Focuses on supporting mission-driven organizations
• Founded the DNS Abuse Institute in 2021 (renamed NetBeacon Institute in 2024)

Governance: The Internet Society retains authority over key governance aspects, including board appointments. In 2025, Seun Ojedeji was added to PIR's board.

GoDaddy Registry

Registrar-turned-registry operator.

TLDs operated:

• Over 200 TLDs including:
• ccTLDs: .co (Colombia), .us
• gTLDs: .club, .biz, .design, .law, .bank
• City TLDs: .nyc, .sydney
• Brand TLDs: .chase, .fox

Background: GoDaddy Registry grew through acquisitions, including domains from Mind & Machines (MMX). In 2023, they acquired .wiki, .tattoo, .ink, .gay, and .health.

Dual Role: GoDaddy uniquely operates as both a major registrar (selling domains retail) and a registry (operating TLDs wholesale). These operations are functionally separated.

CentralNic (Team Internet)

Major registry services provider.

Scale:

• 150+ TLDs on their platform
• Over 20 million domains
• Network of 1,500+ registrars and 100,000+ resellers
• ISO 9001:2015, ISO/IEC 27001:2022, and ISO 22301:2019 certified

Services: CentralNic operates as both a registry (for some TLDs) and a registry service provider (back-end operations for other registries).

2025 Changes:

• Lost Radix as a client (migrating to Tucows in November 2025)
• Secured .co back-end business from GoDaddy

Country Code TLD (ccTLD) Registries

Unlike gTLDs, ccTLDs are managed by organizations designated by each country, often with different rules and structures.

Major ccTLD Registries

Nominet (.uk, .co.uk)

The UK's domain registry since 1996.

• Over 10 million domains under management
• Operates .uk family: .uk, .co.uk, .org.uk, .me.uk, etc.
• Also manages gTLDs like .pharmacy, .wales, .cymru
• One of only three ICANN Emergency Back End Registry Operators (EBERO) worldwide
• Public benefit company structure

2024-2025 Updates: Nominet is modernizing its systems to align with global EPP standards, bringing together their bespoke .UK systems with their gTLD platform. They postponed the originally planned end-of-life of .UK WHOIS (scheduled for January 2025) to ensure smoother transition.

DENIC (.de)

Germany's cooperative registry.

• Approximately 17.7 million .de domains (end of 2024)
• 15.6 million registered within Germany
• 2.1 million registered by international holders
• Statistically, 1 in 5 German residents has a .de domain
• Non-profit cooperative structure since 1996

International Usage: .de domain holders come from worldwide, with USA (27%), Netherlands (14%), Portugal (9%), Austria (8%), and Switzerland (5%) being the top foreign countries.

AFNIC (.fr)

France's domain registry.

• 4,216,786 domain names registered at end of 2024
• 40.4% market share in France (all-time high)
• 802,202 new registrations in 2024
• 82.6% retention rate
• Also manages .re, .pm, .tf, .wf, .yt (French Overseas TLDs)

Non-Profit Mission: As a non-profit, AFNIC devotes 11% of .fr revenues to the Afnic Foundation for Digital Solidarity (approximately 1.3 million euros annually).

2024 Price Change: Registry fees increased from 4.56 euros to 5.07 euros (11.1% increase) on March 1, 2024, partly due to NIS 2 Directive compliance requirements.

Other Notable ccTLD Registries

Registry Service Providers (RSPs)

Many TLD operators don't run their own technical infrastructure. Instead, they contract with Registry Service Providers.

What RSPs Do

• Operate DNS infrastructure for the TLD
• Run the EPP gateway for registrar communications
• Manage the registration database
• Handle RDAP/WHOIS services
• Ensure compliance with ICANN technical requirements
• Provide DNSSEC signing

Major RSPs

Identity Digital: Provides registry services for 180+ TLDs beyond those they operate directly.

CentralNic: Back-end provider for numerous ccTLDs and brand TLDs.

Tucows Registry (Enom): Taking over Radix back-end operations in November 2025.

Nominet: Provides registry services for brand TLDs including BBC and Microsoft.

AFNIC: Back-end for .paris, .bzh, .alsace, .corsica, .mma, .ovh, .leclerc, .sncf.

ICANN RSP Evaluation Program (2024-2025)

ICANN launched a formal RSP Evaluation Program for the next round of new gTLDs:

• Evaluation Period: November 19, 2024 - May 20, 2025
• Purpose: All new gTLD applicants must use an evaluated RSP
• Registered: 41 entities as of February 2025
• List Publication: December 2025

This program streamlines the application process by pre-evaluating technical capabilities.

ICANN's Role in Registry Oversight

Registry Agreements

All gTLD registries sign contracts with ICANN that specify:

• Technical requirements (DNS, EPP, RDAP, DNSSEC)
• Pricing constraints and fee structures
• Data escrow requirements
• Abuse mitigation obligations
• WHOIS/RDAP obligations
• Reporting requirements

2024 Registry Agreement Updates

The Base Registry Agreement was approved by the ICANN Board on January 21, 2024, with key changes:

• DNS Abuse Mitigation: Strengthened requirements for registry operators to take prompt action against DNS abuse
• RDAP Transition: Mandatory RDAP support; WHOIS protocol obligations sunset January 28, 2025
• Registration Data Policy: New policy effective August 21, 2025, modifying data handling requirements

ICANN Fees

As of July 1, 2025, the ICANN fee registrars pay on all gTLDs increases from $0.18 to $0.20 per registration/renewal.

Emergency Back End Registry Operators (EBERO)

ICANN maintains a program where pre-qualified organizations can take over registry operations if an operator fails. Current EBEROs include Nominet (one of only three worldwide).

The Economics of Domain Registries

Revenue Model

Registries earn money through:

1. Registration fees: Wholesale fee per domain registered
2. Renewal fees: Annual fees for maintaining registrations
3. Premium domains: Higher prices for desirable names
4. Services: Registry lock, premium DNSSEC, etc.

Wholesale vs Retail Pricing Example

Premium Domain Strategy

New gTLD registries like Radix generate significant revenue from premium domains:

• Radix H1 2024: $5.16 million in retail premium revenue
• Radix H1 2025: 50% year-over-year increase in premium registrations
• .tech: 70% surge in premium registrations in H1 2025

Premium pricing tiers can range from $100 to $100,000+ for highly desirable names.

New gTLD Program and Registry Expansion

The 2012 Expansion

ICANN's 2012 new gTLD program dramatically expanded the domain landscape:

• 1,930 applications received
• 1,200+ new TLDs delegated
• Cost per application: $185,000

Next Round (2026)

ICANN is preparing for a new round of gTLD applications:

• Application Window: Expected April 2026 (12-15 weeks)
• Updated Registry Agreement: Draft to be published for public comment in 2025
• RSP Requirement: All applicants must use pre-evaluated Registry Service Providers

Key Changes Expected:

• Updated abuse mitigation requirements
• Enhanced technical specifications
• Clearer processes based on lessons from 2012 round

Registry Consolidation Trends

The domain registry industry has seen significant consolidation:

Notable Acquisitions

2017: Afilias acquires Internet Computer Bureau (.io, .sh, .ac) for $70.17 million

2020: Donuts acquires Afilias (undisclosed)

2021: Ethos Capital acquires Donuts, forming Identity Digital

2023: GoDaddy Registry acquires .wiki, .tattoo, .ink, .gay, .health

Industry Structure Today

The registry industry is now dominated by a few major players:

1. Verisign: Controls .com, .net (170M+ domains)
2. Identity Digital: 270+ gTLDs, 28M+ domains
3. Radix: 10 extensions, 10M+ domains
4. GoDaddy Registry: 200+ TLDs
5. CentralNic: 150+ TLDs, 20M+ domains

Implications of Consolidation

Benefits:

• Economies of scale
• Better security investment
• Standardized operations

Concerns:

• Reduced competition
• Pricing power concentration
• Single points of failure

Technical Infrastructure

What Registries Must Operate

DNS Infrastructure:

• Authoritative nameservers for the TLD
• Global anycast distribution
• 100% uptime requirement

EPP Gateway:

• Secure channel for registrar communications
• Transaction processing
• Validation and authorization

Registration Database:

• Domain records
• Contact information (thick registries)
• Nameserver data

RDAP/WHOIS Services:

• Public query interface
• Rate limiting
• Privacy compliance

Reliability Requirements

ICANN mandates strict Service Level Agreements:

Verisign's 27+ years of uninterrupted .com/.net availability demonstrates the industry standard.

The Future of .io and ccTLD Uncertainty

The .io Situation

The .io domain, popular with tech startups, faces an uncertain future:

Background:

• .io is the ccTLD for British Indian Ocean Territory
• Operated by Identity Digital (via previous acquisitions)
• Extremely popular with tech companies due to "I/O" (input/output) association

October 2024 Development: The United Kingdom announced it would eventually cede the British Indian Ocean Territory to Mauritius while maintaining a 99-year lease on the Diego Garcia military base.

Potential Impact: Under current IANA rules, if the British Indian Ocean Territory ceases to exist as a designated territory, the .io domain could theoretically be phased out. However:

• The transition timeline is unclear
• IANA has previously retired ccTLDs (.yu for Yugoslavia, .su survived despite USSR dissolution)
• Commercial interests and 4+ million registrations create strong preservation incentives
• Legal and diplomatic processes could take years

What Domain Owners Should Know:

• No immediate action required
• Monitor developments through IANA and ICANN announcements
• Consider backup domains in other TLDs for critical applications
• The tech industry's reliance on .io creates strong preservation momentum

Other ccTLD Uncertainties

The .io situation highlights broader ccTLD considerations:

• ccTLDs exist at the discretion of sovereign governments
• Political changes can affect domain policies
• No ICANN contract guarantees (unlike gTLDs)
• Varying data protection and privacy laws apply

Frequently Asked Questions

Can I buy a domain directly from a registry?

Generally no. Most registries only sell wholesale to accredited registrars. Some ccTLDs allow direct registration, and some registries also operate registrar businesses (like GoDaddy), but these are functionally separate operations.

Why do .com and .net have the same registry (Verisign)?

Verisign acquired the .net registry operations as part of various business deals and ICANN negotiations over the years. While this concentration raises competition concerns, ICANN has historically renewed Verisign's contracts because of their proven reliability and infrastructure investment.

How do new TLDs get created?

Through ICANN's new gTLD program. Applicants pay a $185,000 fee, undergo extensive evaluation, and sign a Registry Agreement with ICANN. The next application round is expected in April 2026.

What happens if a registry goes out of business?

ICANN maintains Emergency Back End Registry Operators (EBERO) who can take over operations. Registries must also escrow data with approved providers, ensuring domains can be maintained even if the original operator fails.

Why are some domains more expensive at the registry level?

Registries implement premium pricing for desirable names (short words, dictionary terms, popular keywords). This is a business decision to capture value from high-demand domains. Premium prices can range from hundreds to hundreds of thousands of dollars.

How does a registry decide wholesale pricing?

For gTLDs, pricing is governed by ICANN Registry Agreements which may include price caps or increase limitations. ccTLD registries set their own prices based on national policy. Wholesale prices typically range from $1-2 for promotional TLDs to $30+ for premium extensions like .io.

Do registries see my personal information?

For thick registries (most TLDs), yes - the registry stores complete WHOIS data. For thin registries (historically .com), only the registrar stored contact details. Privacy/proxy services mask your information in public WHOIS but the actual data still exists in registry/registrar records.

What's the difference between a TLD registry and IANA?

IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) manages the DNS root zone - the master list of all TLDs. Individual TLD registries manage everything below their specific extension. IANA is operated by ICANN's Public Technical Identifiers (PTI) subsidiary.

Key Takeaways

• Registries operate TLDs wholesale; registrars sell to you retail. This separation promotes competition in the gTLD space.
• Verisign dominates with .com and .net representing approximately 170 million domains - nearly half of all domain registrations.
• Identity Digital and Radix are the largest new gTLD operators, with over 270 and 10 TLDs respectively.
• ccTLDs operate differently - they're managed by country-designated organizations with varying rules and no ICANN contract requirements.
• Consolidation is ongoing - a few major players now control most of the registry landscape, raising both efficiency and competition concerns.
• Technical requirements are strict - registries must maintain near-perfect uptime for DNS resolution and meet detailed ICANN service levels.
• The .io situation demonstrates ccTLD uncertainty - geopolitical changes can theoretically affect even popular domain extensions.
• ICANN's next new gTLD round opens in April 2026, potentially adding hundreds more TLDs to the ecosystem.

Next Steps

For Domain Buyers

1. Understand your registry - Know who operates your TLD and their stability
2. Consider TLD diversity - Don't put all critical domains in one TLD
3. Use DomainDetails to research domain ownership and history
4. Monitor ccTLD news if you rely on country-code extensions

For Developers

1. Learn EPP - The Understanding EPP Protocol article covers the registry communication standard
2. Use RDAP - Query registry data programmatically with our RDAP guide
3. Build monitoring - Track domain status changes across your portfolio

Related Reading

• Understanding EPP Protocol - Learn how registrars communicate with registries
• What is a Domain Registrar - The retail side of domain sales
• Domain Lifecycle Stages - From registration through deletion

DomainDetails Features

Use DomainDetails.com to research domains:

• WHOIS/RDAP Lookup - See which registry and registrar manage any domain
• Domain Monitoring - Track changes to domains you're interested in
• Bulk Lookup - Research multiple domains across different TLDs

Research Sources

• Verisign Registry Services - Official Verisign registry information
• ICANN .COM Registry Agreement Renewal (November 2024) - Latest .com contract details
• Verisign Q4 2024 Results - Domain registration statistics
• Identity Digital Registry - gTLD portfolio and services
• Identity Digital Inc. 5000 Recognition - 2025 growth statistics
• Radix Registry - New gTLD portfolio information
• Radix H1 2025 Premiums Report (CircleID) - Premium domain statistics
• Tucows/Radix Migration Announcement - November 2025 transition
• Public Interest Registry - .org registry information
• PIR .org Registration Milestone - 11 million domain milestone
• Nominet UK Registry - .uk operations
• DENIC 2024 Statistics - .de domain data
• AFNIC 2024 Annual Report - .fr statistics
• AFNIC 2024 .FR Review - Registration statistics
• ICANN New gTLD Program 2024 Progress - Next round updates
• ICANN RSP Evaluation Program - RSP requirements
• ICANN 2024 Registry Agreement Updates - Policy changes
• .io Wikipedia - Background on .io situation
• .io Domain Delegation (IANA) - Official delegation data